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Class 11PolityIndian Constitution at WorkChapter 7

Federalism

≈ 50 min read · 54 Prelims and 21 Mains questions from this chapter
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Start here: why this chapter matters

In simple wordsA big joint family may share one house but give each branch its own kitchen and budget, with family elders settling quarrels. Federalism is that arrangement for a country — and India built the house with a strong central hall.

Earlier chapters looked at the Union government; this one asks how power is shared between the Union and the States — and why the boundaries, names and number of States have changed so much since 1947. It is the chapter for Centre–State relations, Governors, Article 356, new States and special provisions.

  • Builds on Chapter 1 (borrowed quasi-federal idea from Canada), Chapter 4 (Governor, President's powers), Chapter 5 (Rajya Sabha and Article 249) and Chapter 6 (Supreme Court as federal umpire).
  • Leads to Chapter 8 (a third tier — local governments) and Chapter 9 (amending federal provisions needs State ratification).
  • UPSC: GS2 ‘functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances’ and GS3 fiscal federalism — a large Prelims and Mains area.
WordWhat it means here
FederalismPower divided between national and regional governments, each autonomous in its sphere
Union of StatesIndia's description in Article 1 — the word ‘federation’ is not used
Union / State / Concurrent ListSubjects for Parliament / State legislatures / both
Residuary powersSubjects not in any list — with the Union in India
Unitary biasFeatures that tilt power towards the Centre
AutonomyMore powers and resources for States within the Union — not secession
GovernorConstitutional head of a State, appointed by the President
President's ruleUnion takeover of a State's government under Article 356
Linguistic StatesStates organised around a common language
Asymmetric federalismSome States get special provisions (Beyond NCERT term)
Union TerritoryArea administered by the Union, with or without a legislature
Finance CommissionBody that recommends sharing of taxes between Union and States (Beyond NCERT)
Reading the maps ‘India in 1947’ and ‘India Political’ (pages 151–152)
  • The 1947 map shows British provinces (Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Assam…) alongside princely states such as Hyderabad, Mysore, Rajputana and Travancore, with the territories that went to Pakistan hatched.
  • The present-day map shows today's States and Union Territories — Telangana, Ladakh, the north-eastern States.
  • Compare them: boundaries, names (Mysore → Karnataka, Madras → Tamil Nadu) and the number of States have all changed — the story of Indian federalism in two pictures.

At a glance — the six ideas to carry away

  • Federalism = two levels of government, each autonomous, under a written, supreme constitution with an independent judiciary; India has a single citizenship.
  • India is a ‘Union of States’ (Article 1) — the Constitution never says ‘federation’. Three lists; residuary powers with the Union.
  • Strong Centre: Article 3 power over States' existence, emergencies, central finances and grants, Governors, Article 257 directions, All India Services.
  • Tensions: autonomy demands (TN, Punjab, West Bengal 1977), Governors (Sarkaria 1983–88), Article 356 (Kerala 1959; judicially reviewable).
  • New States: SRC 1953 → 1956; Gujarat/Maharashtra 1960; Punjab/Haryana 1966; Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand 2000; Telangana 2014. Disputes: Belgaum, Chandigarh, Cauvery, Narmada.
  • Special provisions for NE and other States; Article 370 ended in 2019 — J&K and Ladakh became UTs on 31 October 2019.

1. What is federalism?

In simple wordsA school has one principal but several houses — Red, Blue, Green — each with its own captain and competitions. Students belong to a house and to the school. Federalism gives citizens that double belonging.

Many federations broke apart: the USSR (excessive centralisation and Russian domination), Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Pakistan; Canada nearly split between English and French speakers. India, born of Partition, has stayed united for over seven decades — so not just a federal constitution but the nature and practice of federalism matter. India's diversity — more than 20 major languages, several religions, millions of indigenous people — and shared history make it a land of ‘unity in diversity’.

  • Federalism accommodates two sets of polities — regional and national — each autonomous in its sphere. Some federations have dual citizenship; India has single citizenship.
  • People have two identities — Gujarati or Jharkhandi, and Indian.
  • The dual system is spelt out in a written constitution, supreme and the source of both governments' powers: defence and currency for the Union, local matters for the regions.
  • An independent judiciary resolves legal disputes over the division of powers.
  • But real politics, culture, trust and parties decide how a federation works; domination by one unit or group breeds resentment, secessionism, even civil war.
Reading the boxes ‘Federalism in West Indies’ and ‘Federalism in Nigeria’ (pages 153, 156)
  • West Indies: a federation formed in 1958 with a weak centre and economically independent units dissolved in 1962; in 1973 (Treaty of Chaguaramas — NCERT spells it ‘Chiguaramas’) the islands set up joint institutions, the Caribbean Community — they could neither live together as one country nor wholly apart.
  • Nigeria: northern and southern colonies until 1914; a federal constitution agreed at Ibadan in 1950; rivalry among Yoruba (West), Ibo (East) and Hausa-Fulani (North) led to military rule; police control shifted between constitutions (1960, 1979); democracy returned in 1999, but religious and oil-revenue conflicts persist — an overlap of ethnic, religious and economic divisions.
  • The point: a federal form without mutual trust cannot hold a country together.
Reading the side cartoons and ‘Check your progress’ (pages 154–156)
  • A boy compares federalism to school: an identity as class XI or XII, competition between divisions, but pride in one school.
  • A girl recalls Chapter 1: a constitution decides who has how much power.
  • Check your progress: who decides the Centre's powers in a federation? The constitution. How are Centre–State conflicts resolved? Legally by the judiciary, politically by negotiation.

2. Federalism in the Indian Constitution

In simple wordsIndia did not come together like separate shops forming a co-operative; it was one shop that opened branches. So the branches have their own shelves, but the head office keeps the keys to the building.

Leaders of the national movement knew that a large, diverse country needed power divided between provinces and the Centre, and that people of each region should govern themselves. Before Partition, a compromise giving very large powers to the regions was discussed because of the Muslim League's demands; after Partition the Constituent Assembly chose unity and co-operation between Centre and States with separate powers for the States — emphasising unity while recognising diversity. The Constitution does not even use the word ‘federation’: Article 1 says ‘India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States’, the States and territories being listed in the First Schedule.

Division of powers: two sets of governments, both constitutional, with clearly identified areas; disputes are resolved by the judiciary. Economic and financial powers are centralised: States have immense responsibilities but meagre revenue sources.

Seventh Schedule: who makes laws on what (Article 246*)Union Listdefence, atomic energyforeign affairs, war and peacebanking, currency, coinagerailways, airways, portspost and telegraphforeign tradeonly Parliament legislatesState Listagriculture, land, livestockpolice, prisonslocal governmentpublic healthliquor; trade within the StateState public servicesnormally only the StateConcurrent Listeducation*forests*trade unionsadulterationadoption and successiontransfer of non-agricultural propertyboth; Union law prevails*Residuary powers — anything in no list (e.g. cyber laws): Union only (Art. 248*)Examples: NCERT page 159 · * Beyond NCERT: education, forests moved to Concurrent List by 42nd Amendment (1976)
How the Constitution divides law-making powers.
Reading the Article 1 box, the chart of the three lists and the side cartoons (pages 157–159)
  • The Article 1 box prints the opening words — India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States; the States and territories are those in the First Schedule. Note what is missing: the word ‘federation’.
  • A chart branches from ‘Constitution of India’ into the Union List (defence, atomic energy, foreign affairs, war and peace, banking, railways, post and telegraph, airways, ports, foreign trade, currency), the State List (agriculture, police, prison, local government, public health, land, liquor, trade and commerce, livestock, State public services), the Concurrent List (education, transfer of non-agricultural property, forests, trade unions, adulteration, adoption and succession) and Residuary Powers (e.g. cyber laws — Union only). We redrew it as three columns.
  • A girl says the purpose of living together must be that all are happy. A boy compares State finances to a household where the husband holds the money and the wife must manage the house — the vertical fiscal imbalance in one image.
  • Check your progress: residuary powers need separate mention because new subjects (cyber security, space) keep arising and someone must legislate; States are dissatisfied because revenue is centralised and Union law prevails on concurrent subjects.
Beyond NCERT — Articles on legislative relations
  • Article 246 and the Seventh Schedule set out the three lists (UPSC 1985); Article 248 (and Union List entry 97) gives residuary power to Parliament; Article 254: on a concurrent subject, Union law prevails over a conflicting State law (unless the State law has the President's assent).
  • The 42nd Amendment (1976) moved five subjects from the State to the Concurrent List: education, forests, weights and measures, protection of wild animals and birds, and administration of justice (except the Supreme Court and High Courts).
  • Exam favourites: insurance and stock exchanges are Union subjects; population control and family planning, and economic and social planning, are concurrent; public health, fisheries and betting are State subjects; inter-State trade and commerce and inter-State quarantine are Union subjects (UPSC 1992, 1993, 2004, 2006, 2013, 2024). Agricultural income tax is assigned to the States by the Constitution itself (UPSC 1995).
  • Parliament can legislate on a State subject: if the Rajya Sabha so resolves (Art. 249), during a national emergency (Art. 250), if two or more States request (Art. 252), and to implement treaties without any State's consent (Art. 253; UPSC 2000, 2013).

3. Federalism with a strong central government

In simple wordsA new joint family with 500 cousins' households to merge, quarrels to settle and poverty to fight will want a strong head of the family — at least at first. India's framers made the Centre that head.

India had continental size, deep diversity and serious social problems; besides British provinces there were more than 500 princely states to integrate. Fear of disintegration and the need to plan against poverty, illiteracy and inequality led the framers to a strong Centre that works with the States.

Reading T.T. Krishnamachari's portrait and quotation (page 160)A pen sketch of T.T. Krishnamachari with his words of 25 November 1949: in all constitutions the drift has been towards the centre, because States, federal or unitary, have become welfare states rather than police states, and responsibility for the economic well-being of the country has become paramount for the centre. The point: a strong Centre was a deliberate choice for development, not only for security.
  • States' existence is in Parliament's hands: it can form new States by separating territory or uniting States and alter boundaries or names, after seeking the views of the State legislature concerned.
  • Emergency provisions can turn the federation into a highly centralised system; Parliament can then legislate on State subjects.
  • Finance: main revenue sources are with the Centre; States depend on grants; planning centralised economic decisions — the Planning Commission supervised State resources; discretionary grants have drawn charges of discrimination against opposition-ruled States.
  • Governor can recommend dismissal of the State government and dissolution of the Assembly, and can reserve State bills for the President, letting the Centre delay or veto them.
  • Parliament can legislate on State-List matters if the Rajya Sabha ratifies; the Union's executive power is superior and it can give directions to States (Article 257).
  • All India Services: IAS and IPS officers serve the States but are controlled by the Centre.
  • Articles 33 and 34 let Parliament protect persons acting to maintain order under martial law; NCERT links the Armed Forces Special Powers Act to these provisions — an Act that has caused tensions with people.
Reading the Article 257(1) box and the side cartoons (pages 161–162)
  • The box prints Article 257(1): a State's executive power must not impede the Union's, and the Union may give States necessary directions (Beyond NCERT: under Article 365, failure to comply can be treated as a breakdown justifying Article 356).
  • A boy realises India designed federalism to suit its needs rather than borrowing blindly; another exclaims that the Centre seems all-powerful — don't States complain? They do: see section 4.
Federal featuresStrong-centre (‘unitary bias’) featurestwo levels of government, each constitutionalParliament can create, merge, rename Statesdivision of powers in three listsemergencies centralise powerwritten, supreme Constitutionmoney: main taxes with the Centreindependent judiciary settles disputesGovernor appointed by the Centre; reserves billsRajya Sabha represents the States*Parliament may legislate on State subjectsamendment of federal provisions needs half the States*Union directions (Art. 257); All India ServicesNCERT pages 154–163 · * Beyond NCERT · India: ‘Union of States’ (Article 1), single citizenship, integrated judiciary
Federal features and the Centre's extra strength.
Precise points
  • India is not federal because of dual citizenship (it has single citizenship) or a dual judiciary (it has an integrated one) or merely a written constitution — the defining feature is the constitutional division of powers (UPSC 1987, 1994). The Rajya Sabha's representation of States is a federal feature (UPSC 2021).
  • Indian federalism is not the result of an agreement among the units, unlike the USA (UPSC 2017); States receive unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha.
  • Creating a State requires amending the First Schedule (and the Fourth, for Rajya Sabha seats) by an ordinary law under Articles 3–4 (UPSC 2001).
  • NCERT's ‘Planning Commission’ is dated — it was replaced by NITI Aayog on 1 January 2015. The Planning Commission, NDC and Zonal Councils are not in the Constitution (UPSC 2013).
  • Central control over State administration through directions is sometimes called ‘municipal’ relations (UPSC 1994).
Reading ‘Check your progress’ on unitary bias (page 163)Two reasons for the unitary bias: Parliament's power over States' existence (Art. 3) and centralised finance/emergency powers. Does a strong Centre make States weak, or strong States a weak Centre? Not necessarily — co-operative federalism can strengthen both; see the in-text answers.

4. Conflicts in India's federal system

In simple wordsIn any family the branches eventually ask for a bigger share of the budget and more say in decisions. That is not a desire to leave the family — just to be respected within it.

Recognising State identities while giving the Centre more power naturally produces demands for more powers and autonomy. Legal disputes go to the courts; autonomy demands are political and need negotiation. The Constitution is a skeleton; politics provides the flesh: 1950s–early 1960s — Congress dominance, normal relations except over new States; mid-1960s — opposition governments in many States, demands for autonomy and complaints of interference; since the 1990s — coalitions at the Centre, regional parties in the States, more say for States and a ‘more mature federalism’.

Autonomy means different things: (1) more and more important powers for States (Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal; DMK, Akali Dal, CPI-M); (2) financial autonomy — independent revenue and control of resources (West Bengal's Left Front document of 1977); (3) administrative control, resenting central control of the machinery; (4) cultural and linguistic issues — opposition to Hindi domination in Tamil Nadu, advancing Punjabi; anti-Hindi agitations in the 1960s.

FederaltensionsAutonomy demandspowers, money, administration, cultureGovernorsappointed by the Centre; partisanshipArticle 356dismissal of State governmentsNew Stateslanguage, region, efficiencyBorder disputesBelgaum; Chandigarh; Manipur–NagalandRiver watersCauvery; NarmadaNCERT pages 163–169 · legal disputes go to courts; autonomy demands are political and need negotiation
Where Centre–State and inter-State tensions come from.
Reading Shankar's cartoon of 18 September 1949 and the side cartoon (page 165)
  • A group of enthusiasts — one brandishing a stick — push and pull a figure labelled as non-Hindi, while Nehru, hand raised, tries to restrain them. NCERT: during the national-language debate Nehru had to appeal to the Hindi-speaking provinces to show greater tolerance. The point: language imposed from above breeds resentment.
  • A boy, peering from a cupboard, notes Hindi is the official language but many friends from other regions don't know it.

Governors: not elected; often retired officers or politicians; appointed by the Centre, so their actions are seen as central interference — especially when different parties rule Centre and State. The Sarkaria Commission (set up 1983, reported 1988) recommended strictly non-partisan appointments. Article 356 provides President's rule when a State's government cannot be carried on according to the Constitution; the Union takes over; the proclamation must be ratified by Parliament; it can be extended up to three years. The Governor's report can lead to dismissal of the government and suspension or dissolution of the Assembly. Governments with majorities were dismissed (Kerala, 1959) or dismissed without testing their majority (several States after 1967). The Supreme Court has ruled that the validity of President's rule can be examined by courts. Used sparingly till 1967, it was often used afterwards when non-Congress parties ruled States — e.g. elected governments were removed in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in the 1980s.

Reading Shankar's cartoon of 27 April 1952 and R.K. Laxman's cartoon (pages 166–167)
  • Shankar, titled ‘Kicking upstairs’: a figure is booted up to an upper window of a large building while another clings to the ground below; NCERT: when Nehru appointed Governors, some were reluctant to give up ministerial chairs. The point: Governorships were seen as a way to move politicians aside.
  • Laxman: a politician at a microphone indignantly denies toppling non-Congress governments — ‘we topple our own too’, naming several States. NCERT: ‘Toppling the State governments. Everyone loves to play this game!’ The point: Article 356 and Governors became tools of party politics.
⤵ President's rule under Article 356 (detail Beyond NCERT)
Report of the Governor, or otherwisethe President is satisfied the State's government cannot be carried on per the Constitution
ProclamationState executive taken over; Assembly suspended or dissolved; Parliament exercises the State legislature's powers
Approval by both Houses within two monthsthen valid for six months at a time
Extensions up to three yearsbeyond one year only if a national emergency is on and the Election Commission certifies elections are difficult (44th Amendment)
Revocationan elected government returns
Judicial reviewS.R. Bommai (1994): courts can strike it down; majority to be tested on the floor
Beyond NCERT — Governors and emergencies
  • Governor: appointed by the President (Art. 155); holds office during the President's pleasure (Art. 156) — so a five-year term does not prevent earlier removal or allow automatic continuation (UPSC 1995); removal must not be arbitrary (B.P. Singhal, 2010). The same person can be Governor of two or more States. The Constitution expressly mentions the Governor's discretion (Art. 163; UPSC 2025); in practice it covers reporting for President's rule and reserving bills for the President (Art. 200; UPSC 2014) — the President cannot himself reserve a State bill (UPSC 2025). Governors enjoy immunity from courts for official acts and from criminal proceedings during office; their emoluments cannot be cut during their term (Art. 361, 158; UPSC 2018, 2025). The Governor of Assam has special responsibilities for tribal areas under the Sixth Schedule (UPSC 1987).
  • Commissions: Sarkaria (Centre–State relations; recommended an eminent outsider, detached from politics, as Governor — UPSC 1984, 1986, 2019); the Rajamannar Committee (1969, Tamil Nadu) and the Punchhi Commission (2007–2010) also reported. The 1983 opposition conclave in Srinagar asked for an Inter-State Council and more autonomy (UPSC 1984).
  • Under President's rule the Assembly is not automatically dissolved, Fundamental Rights are not suspended, and Parliament (not the President) exercises the legislature's powers (UPSC 2017, 2018). Its use fell sharply after S.R. Bommai (Mains 2023).
  • Emergencies: national (Art. 352 — the 44th Amendment replaced ‘internal disturbance’ with ‘armed rebellion’, UPSC 1979), President's rule (Art. 356), financial (Art. 360 — approved within two months and then continues until revoked; UPSC 2007; Mains 2018). Article 355: the Union must protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance (UPSC 2003).

Demands for new States: the national movement fostered unity around language and culture as well as the nation, and decided that States would, as far as possible, follow cultural and linguistic identity. The States Reorganisation Commission was set up in December 1953 and recommended linguistic States for major language groups; reorganisation came in 1956. Gujarat and Maharashtra followed in 1960; Punjab and Haryana separated in 1966; the North-East was reorganised (Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh). In 2000, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were divided to create Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand; in 2014 Telangana was carved from Andhra Pradesh. Some regions, like Vidarbha, still seek Statehood.

1953SRC set up (December)1956linguistic reorganisation1960Gujarat, Maharashtra1966Punjab and Haryana split1972*Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya1987*Mizoram, Arunachal, Goa2000three new States (MP, UP, Bihar)2014TelanganaOrange = in NCERT · * year Beyond NCERT (NCERT gives no dates for the North-East) · also Nagaland 1963*, Sikkim 1975*
Reorganisation of States.
Reading Shankar's cartoon of 26 July 1953 and the Activity (pages 167–168)
  • A huge, jostling crowd of figures bearing placards for different regional and linguistic demands surges around a small seated figure. NCERT: ‘Flood of demands for creating new States’ — on the eve of the 1953 Commission.
  • The Activity: list each State and the year it was created (Beyond NCERT: Andhra State 1953, the big reorganisation 1956, Nagaland 1963, Himachal Pradesh 1971, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya 1972, Sikkim 1975, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Goa 1987).
⤵ How a new State is created (Articles 3–4 — Beyond NCERT detail)
Demand and political decisionlanguage, region or administrative efficiency
Bill introduced on the President's recommendationonly in Parliament
President refers it to the State legislaturefor its views within a set time — not binding
Parliament passes it by simple majoritynot a constitutional amendment under Article 368 (Art. 4)
First and Fourth Schedules updatednew State, new Rajya Sabha seats

Inter-State conflicts: courts decide legal aspects, but these disputes are political and need negotiation. Border disputes: Maharashtra–Karnataka over Belgaum; Manipur–Nagaland; Punjab–Haryana over border areas and Chandigarh, capital of both — the 1985 understanding with Rajiv Gandhi to hand it to Punjab has not been implemented. River waters are more serious: the Kaveri dispute between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (a tribunal exists but the case reached the Supreme Court) and the Narmada dispute among Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

⤵ How an inter-State river dispute travels (Article 262 — Beyond NCERT detail)
States disagree over sharing a rivere.g. Kaveri: Karnataka upstream, Tamil Nadu downstream
Negotiation failsa State asks the Union for adjudication
Union sets up a tribunalunder the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956
Award is notifiedbinding on the States
Implementedoften through a management authority
Contestedappeals reach the Supreme Court (NCERT: the Kaveri case did)
Beyond NCERT — co-operative machinery
  • Article 262 lets Parliament provide for adjudicating inter-State river disputes and bar other courts; tribunals are set up under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956.
  • Article 263: Inter-State Council, set up in 1990 on Sarkaria's advice — the only one of ISC, National Security Council and Zonal Councils created under the Constitution (UPSC 2025). Zonal Councils are statutory (States Reorganisation Act, 1956); the North Eastern Council was created by a 1971 Act and made a planning body in 2002 (UPSC 2024). UPSC 1995 keyed NDC, the Governors' Conference and Zonal Councils as ‘extra-constitutional and extra-legal’ — keep the key, but note Zonal Councils rest on a statute.
  • Belgaum is now officially Belagavi.
Reading the side cartoons and Activity (pages 164, 168–169)
  • A girl concludes that laws and constitutions alone don't decide everything — politics does. Another asks whether federalism is all about conflict; a third answers that despite conflicts over Governors, language, borders and water, ‘we manage to live together’.
  • Activity: collect information on one river-water dispute (e.g. Cauvery — tribunal award 2007 and Supreme Court judgment 2018, Beyond NCERT).

5. Money: Centre–State financial relations (Beyond NCERT expansion)

In simple wordsThe Centre collects most of the household income; the States run most of the kitchens. A neutral elder — the Finance Commission — decides every five years how much goes to each kitchen.

NCERT stresses that financial powers are centralised and grants can be lopsided. UPSC tests the machinery behind this:

Union revenuesincome tax, customs, most big taxesFinance Commission*shares of central taxesand grants (Arts 270, 275, 280)Discretionary grants*Union schemes, Art. 282 grants(NCERT: ‘lopsided’)GST Council*shared goods-and-servicestax (Art. 279A, 2016)Stateshuge responsibilities, meagre own revenues (NCERT)NCERT pages 158, 161 · * Beyond NCERT · the Planning Commission NCERT mentions gave way to NITI Aayog in 2015
How money flows from the Union to the States.
⤵ Finance Commission cycle (Beyond NCERT)
President constitutes itevery five years or earlier (Art. 280): a chairman and four members
Studies Union and State financesconsults States and the Union
Recommendsshare of divisible central taxes for States and its distribution among them; grants-in-aid (Art. 275)
President lays the report before Parliamentwith an explanatory memorandum (Art. 281)
Union implementse.g. the 14th Commission raised States' share to 42%; the 15th set 41%
Beyond NCERT — fiscal federalism facts
  • The Finance Commission is constitutional, appointed every fifth year, and its main job is to recommend distribution of tax revenue and grants between the Union and the States (UPSC 1980, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1993, 2000, 2002, 2003); the President lays its recommendations before Parliament (UPSC 2010). It does not allow withdrawals from the Consolidated Fund or supervise spending.
  • GST: the 101st Amendment (2016) created concurrent taxing power (Art. 246A) and the GST Council (Art. 279A) of the Union and State finance ministers; GST began on 1 July 2017, with compensation to States for five years under a 2017 Act (Mains 2023; GS3 2020).
  • The Planning Commission and NDC were executive bodies; NITI Aayog replaced the Commission in 2015 (UPSC 2013, 2014).

6. Special provisions and Jammu and Kashmir

In simple wordsIn a class, the teacher may let a student with weak eyesight sit in front. That is not favouritism; it is fairness to a different situation. Special provisions treat some States differently for their particular history and society.

The most extraordinary feature of Indian federalism is differential treatment. The Rajya Sabha is already asymmetrical; and though the division of powers is common to all States, special provisions exist for some — mostly in the North-East (Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.) because of large indigenous tribal populations with distinct histories, though these have not ended alienation and insurgency in parts of the region. Special provisions also exist for hill States like Himachal Pradesh and for Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Sikkim and Telangana.

Beyond NCERT — where the special provisions are
  • Articles 371 to 371J: Maharashtra and Gujarat (371), Nagaland (371A), Assam (371B), Manipur (371C), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (371D, 371E), Sikkim (371F), Mizoram (371G), Arunachal Pradesh (371H), Goa (371I), Karnataka's Hyderabad–Karnataka region (371J, 98th Amendment 2012). Himachal Pradesh has no separate Article 371 clause — its special treatment has been mainly financial (‘special category’ status).
  • Fifth Schedule (Scheduled Areas in most States) and Sixth Schedule (autonomous district councils in tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram) protect Scheduled Tribes (UPSC 2015, 2026); Scheduled-Area status helps prevent transfer of tribal land to non-tribals, but the State does not lose its executive power there (UPSC 2022, 2025).
  • Delhi: the 69th Amendment (1991) created a legislature and council of ministers for the National Capital Territory (Article 239AA; UPSC 2001; Mains 2016). In July 2018 a Constitution Bench held that the Lieutenant Governor is generally bound by the elected government's aid and advice except in public order, police and land (Mains 2018); after a 2023 judgment on control of services, Parliament passed the Government of NCT of Delhi (Amendment) Act, 2023.

Jammu and Kashmir had special status under Article 370. It was a large princely State with the option to join India or Pakistan or stay independent; in October 1947, after Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators, Maharaja Hari Singh sought India's help and acceded to the Indian Union. Unlike the Muslim-majority areas that joined Pakistan, J&K was given much greater autonomy: Union- and Concurrent-List laws needed the State's concurrence. Over time Presidential orders made large parts of the Constitution applicable, so although J&K had its own constitution and flag, Parliament's power over Union-List subjects was accepted. Remaining differences: no emergency for internal disturbance without the State's concurrence, no financial emergency, Directive Principles did not apply, and amendments applied only with the State government's concurrence. Now the special status no longer exists: under the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, the State was bifurcated into two Union Territories — Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh — with effect from 31 October 2019.

Oct 1947accession to India1950*Article 370 in force1954*order extends many provisions5–6 Aug 2019*all of Constitution applies31 Oct 2019two UTs: J&K, LadakhDec 2023*Supreme Court rulingSept–Oct 2024*UT Assembly electionsOrange = in NCERT · * = date or event Beyond NCERT · UT of J&K has a legislature; UT of Ladakh does not
Jammu and Kashmir's constitutional position, 1947–2024 (factual summary).
Beyond NCERT — the 2019 changes and the 2023 judgment (factual)
  • On 5 August 2019 a Presidential order applied all provisions of the Constitution to Jammu and Kashmir, and on 6 August 2019 a declaration under Article 370(3) made the other provisions of Article 370 inoperative; the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 created the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (with a legislature) and the Union Territory of Ladakh (without one), in force from 31 October 2019.
  • On 11 December 2023 a five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court (In Re: Article 370 of the Constitution) upheld the 2019 Presidential orders making Article 370 inoperative, holding it to have been a temporary provision, and upheld the creation of the Union Territory of Ladakh; it did not decide whether converting the State into a Union Territory was valid, recording the Union's assurance that Statehood would be restored, and directed that Statehood be restored at the earliest and Assembly elections be held by 30 September 2024. Assembly elections were held in September–October 2024.
  • Mains 2016 asked how ‘temporary’ Article 370 was; Mains 2025 asked about the nature and powers of the Assembly of the UT of Jammu and Kashmir.
Reading ‘Check your progress’ and the side cartoon (page 170)
  • Why do States want autonomy? To govern according to their own needs, culture and language, with resources to match responsibilities. Autonomy vs secession: autonomy seeks more powers within the Union; secession seeks to leave it.
  • A girl now understands the ‘intelligent and balanced design’ of Chapter 1 — accommodating diversity without breaking unity.

Conclusion (NCERT): federalism is like a rainbow — separate colours in a harmonious pattern. No legal formula can guarantee it; people and politics must develop trust, tolerance and co-operation. Forced uniformity breeds strife; a polity responsive to diversity and autonomy demands is the basis of co-operative federalism.

NCERT's in-text questions, cartoons and activities — short answers

What accounts for India staying united when other federations broke up? (page 153)
A federal design that accommodated languages and regions (linguistic States), a strong but democratic Centre, shared history of the freedom struggle, democratic politics where regional parties share power, judicial umpiring, and willingness to negotiate autonomy and special provisions rather than suppress them.
Check your progress: who decides the Centre's powers; how are conflicts resolved? (page 156)
The constitution decides; legal conflicts go to the Supreme Court (original jurisdiction), political ones through negotiation and institutions such as the Inter-State Council.
Check your progress: why mention residuary powers separately; why are States dissatisfied? (page 158)
New subjects keep arising, and the Constitution must say who legislates — in India, the Union. States are dissatisfied because big taxes are central, they depend on grants, Union law prevails on concurrent subjects, and Article 249 and emergencies can override them.
‘Money is with the husband; the wife must manage the household.’ (page 158)
A vivid image of vertical fiscal imbalance: States spend on health, police, agriculture, but the Centre raises most revenue. Finance Commission transfers and GST sharing try to correct it.
Check your progress: two reasons for unitary bias; does a strong Centre make States weak, or strong States a weak Centre? (page 163)
Reasons: Parliament can reshape States (Art. 3); emergency and financial centralisation (also Governors, Art. 257, All India Services). Strong Centre vs strong States: not a zero-sum game — co-operative federalism, financial devolution and consultation can make both effective; problems arise when the Centre's strength is used for partisan ends.
‘The Centre appears all-powerful — don't the States complain?’ (page 162)
Yes — through autonomy demands, opposition to Governors' actions, demands for financial devolution, and the Sarkaria and Punchhi commissions.
Activity: list the States and the year each was created. (page 168)
Examples: Andhra State 1953; reorganisation 1956; Gujarat and Maharashtra 1960; Nagaland 1963; Haryana 1966; Himachal Pradesh 1971; Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya 1972; Sikkim 1975; Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa 1987; Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand 2000; Telangana 2014.
‘Is federalism all about conflict? Can't we live together peacefully?’ (page 168)
Conflict is normal in a diverse democracy; federalism provides peaceful channels — courts, negotiation, tribunals, councils — so that disagreements don't become secession.
Activity: one river-water dispute. (page 169)
Cauvery: Karnataka (upstream) and Tamil Nadu (downstream), plus Kerala and Puducherry; tribunal formed 1990, final award 2007, Supreme Court judgment 2018 modified shares and led to the Cauvery Water Management Authority (Beyond NCERT).
Check your progress: why autonomy; autonomy vs secession? (page 170)
Autonomy is about more powers, resources and cultural recognition within India; secession is breaking away. Accommodating autonomy is often the best defence against secessionism.

NCERT exercise — answer outlines

Try each question yourself first, then open the outline to compare. NCERT has no MCQs here; the self-check below is built from the text and Prelims patterns.

Q1. Which news items relate to the functioning of federalism, and why? (Darjeeling Sixth Schedule settlement; plans for rain-hit States; new MCD commissioner; Manipur University made central; funds released to Arunachal; attack on non-Maharashtrian students; demand to dismiss Nagaland's government; Bihar's appeal to naxalites.)
Federal: the tripartite Darjeeling settlement (Centre–State–regional body; Sixth-Schedule-type autonomy); Centre's relief plans for States (financial relations); central university in Manipur (Union subject in a State); funds to Arunachal (grants); demand to the Governor for dismissing the Nagaland government (Governor, Art. 356); attacks on non-Maharashtrian students (tension between regional identity and national citizenship — free movement). Not specifically federal: a municipal commissioner's transfer (administration — though an IAS officer moving between cadres touches All India Services) and Bihar's internal appeal to naxalites (State law and order).
Q2. True or false: (a) federalism lets regions interact without fear of cultural imposition (b) federalism hinders economic transactions between regions (c) federalism keeps the Centre's powers limited.
(a) Correct — each region keeps its culture and language while sharing the nation. (b) Incorrect — a common market, single currency and Union control of inter-State trade ease exchange. (c) Partly — powers are constitutionally limited, but in India the Centre is deliberately strong (residuary powers, emergencies), so not strongly limited.
Q3. Belgium's Articles 1–5: how is federalism visualised? Write a similar Article for India.
Belgium describes itself explicitly as a federal State of communities (language-based: French, Flemish, German) and regions (territorial: Walloon, Flemish, Brussels), with linguistic regions — identity-based, power-sharing federalism. India's Article 1 says ‘Union of States’ with States listed in the First Schedule. A model draft: ‘India, that is Bharat, is a Union of States, a federal republic in which the Union and the States, each with powers under this Constitution, together protect the unity and the linguistic and cultural diversity of its people…’
Q4. Essay (300 words): rewrite the federal provisions — division of powers, finances, inter-State disputes, Governors.
Powers: shift some concurrent subjects back to States; consultation before Union laws on concurrent subjects; limit Article 249 use. Finance: larger guaranteed share of central taxes; reduce discretionary grants; strengthen the GST Council's consensus; let States borrow more freely. Disputes: empower the Inter-State Council (Art. 263) with regular meetings; time-bound river tribunals with enforceable awards; permanent river basin authorities. Governors: appointment after consulting the Chief Minister, from eminent non-partisan persons (Sarkaria), fixed term with removal only for cause, time limits on assent decisions; Article 356 only as last resort with a floor test (Bommai).
Q5. What should be the basis for forming a State: language, economic interests, religion, administrative convenience?
Language has been the main and largely successful basis (1956) — it matches culture and governance. Administrative convenience and regional development also matter (2000 States; Telangana). Economic interests alone are weak grounds. Religion must be rejected — it contradicts secularism and recalls Partition. Best: a mix of language, administrative viability and people's wishes.
Q6. If Rajasthan, MP, UP and Bihar were merged as one Hindi State, would it suit federalism?
No. Language is not the only identity — regions within the Hindi belt differ in culture, dialect and economy; a giant State would dominate the Union (seats in Parliament), be administratively unwieldy, and upset the balance among States. Federalism needs units of manageable size and some balance; the trend has been to divide large States (2000), not merge them.
Q7. Four features giving the Centre more power than States.
Parliament's power to create or alter States (Art. 3); emergency provisions (Arts 352, 356, 360); residuary powers and Union-law primacy on concurrent subjects (Arts 248, 254); centralised finances and grants; Governor appointed by the Centre and power to reserve bills; Union directions (Art. 257); All India Services; Article 249 legislation on State subjects.
Q8. Why are many States unhappy with the Governor's role?
Appointed by the Centre, often politicians, seen as agents of the ruling party at the Centre; reports leading to President's rule (Kerala 1959, 1980s cases); discretion in inviting parties to form governments in hung Assemblies; delaying or reserving State bills; acting as university chancellors against State wishes. Remedies: Sarkaria and Punchhi recommendations, Bommai's floor-test rule.
Q9. Is President's rule justified in each case? (two opposition MLAs killed; rising kidnapping and crimes against women; hung Assembly with fear of horse-trading; different parties ruling State and Centre; 2,000 killed in communal riots; a State defying the Supreme Court in a water dispute)
Not fit: murders of two MLAs (law-and-order failure, not constitutional breakdown); rising crime (governance failure, remedied politically and legally); hung Assembly (try a floor test first — Bommai); different parties ruling (never a ground). Possibly fit: 2,000 killed in riots if the State government is unable or unwilling to control them — a breakdown of constitutional machinery (Art. 355 duty, then 356); defiance of the Supreme Court — failure to comply with constitutional obligations can be treated as a breakdown (Art. 365), but courts would prefer contempt and enforcement first. Article 356 must be a last resort.
Q10. What demands have States raised in seeking greater autonomy?
More and more important powers (TN, Punjab, West Bengal; DMK, Akali Dal, CPI-M); financial autonomy and independent revenue (West Bengal 1977 document); administrative control over officers; cultural and linguistic recognition (against Hindi domination; promoting Punjabi). Also: Governors' role, restrictions on Article 356, larger tax shares.
Q11. Should some States have special provisions? Does it create resentment? Does it help unity?
Yes where history and society differ — tribal areas of the North-East (Sixth Schedule, Art. 371A–H) protect land, customs and identity and helped integrate regions. Resentment can arise if others see it as privilege (e.g. debates over Article 370 or special-category status). Unity: asymmetric accommodation has generally helped hold a diverse country together (‘unity in diversity’), but special provisions must be transparent, reviewed and paired with development so they don't deepen alienation.

What to remember

Numbers

Article 1India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States
Princely states at independence (NCERT)more than 500
Major languages (NCERT)more than 20
West Indies federation1958–1962; Caribbean Community 1973
Nigeriacolonies merged 1914; Ibadan 1950; democracy restored 1999
Sarkaria Commissionset up 1983, report 1988
President's rule maximum3 years
Kerala government dismissed1959
States Reorganisation CommissionDecember 1953 → reorganisation 1956
Gujarat, Maharashtra / Punjab–Haryana1960 / 1966
New States 2000Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand
Telangana2014
West Bengal autonomy document1977
J&K reorganised into two UTs31 October 2019
Supreme Court Article 370 judgment (Beyond NCERT)11 December 2023
Finance Commission (Beyond NCERT)every 5 years (Art. 280)
GST (Beyond NCERT)101st Amendment 2016; from 1 July 2017
Delhi legislature (Beyond NCERT)69th Amendment 1991

One-liners

  • India: a ‘Union of States’ — never called a federation in the text.
  • Residuary powers with the Union (Art. 248).
  • Federal feature that defines India: division of powers between Centre and States.
  • Strong Centre for unity and development.
  • Autonomy ≠ secession.
  • Article 356 is judicially reviewable (Bommai, 1994).
  • Linguistic States since 1956.
  • Sixth Schedule: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram.

Traps to avoid

  • India has single citizenship and an integrated judiciary — not dual.
  • Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among States.
  • A treaty-implementing law needs no State's consent (Art. 253).
  • Under President's rule the Assembly is not automatically dissolved; Fundamental Rights are not suspended.
  • The Governor holds office at the President's pleasure; a five-year term is not guaranteed.
  • The President cannot reserve a State bill on his own; only the Governor can reserve it.
  • The Inter-State Council (Art. 263) is constitutional; Zonal Councils are statutory; NDC and Planning Commission were neither.
  • Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015 — NCERT's reference is dated.
  • Himachal Pradesh has no Article 371 clause; its special treatment was financial.
  • Creating a State needs only an ordinary law amending the First (and Fourth) Schedule.

How to strategise

Prelims — what UPSC asks

  • Nature of federalism: what makes India federal (1987, 1994, 2021), what is not a feature (2017), ‘municipal relations’ (1994), Seventh Schedule (1985), list placements (1992, 1993, 2004, 2006, 2013, 2024), agricultural income tax (1995), treaties (2000, 2013), Articles 257 and 355 (2004, 2003), new State and First Schedule (2001), 1956 reorganisation (1983).
  • Governors and emergencies: Article 156 (1995), discretion (2014, 2025), immunity (2018, 2025), Sarkaria (1984, 1986, 2019), Srinagar conclave (1984), Assam tribal areas (1987), President's rule consequences (2017, 2018), financial emergency (2007), 44th Amendment (1979).
  • Finance and co-operation: Finance Commission (1980, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1993, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011), NDC and planning (2013, 2014), extra-constitutional bodies (1995, 2013), constitutional councils (2025), NEC (2024). Special areas: Fifth/Sixth Schedules (2015, 2022, 2025, 2026), 69th Amendment (2001).

Mains — where it appears and how to answer

  • GS2 — design: federalism leaning towards the Centre (2014), cooperative federalism (2015), GoI Act 1935 as federal (2016), federal supremacy and harmonious construction (2019), asymmetric federalism (2026), national vs regional parties (2022).
  • GS2 — flashpoints: Article 356's declining use (2023), Governor's assent powers (2026), CBI jurisdiction in States (2021), Centre–State relations changes (2024), Delhi's 69th Amendment and the 2018 judgment (2016, 2018), Article 370 (2016), J&K UT Assembly (2025), financial emergency (2018).
  • GS2/GS3 — fiscal federalism: Finance Commission (2018), 14th Finance Commission (2021), fiscal federalism and planned development (2025), GST and federalism (2023; GS3 2020). GS1: new States and the economy (2018).
  • Answer frame: constitutional design (Art. 1, lists, strong Centre) → rationale (unity, development) → tensions (Governor, 356, finance, language, water) → correctives (Sarkaria, Punchhi, Bommai, FC, GST Council, ISC) → co-operative and competitive federalism → conclusion: unity through accommodating diversity.

Self-check

Tap an option. NCERT's own exercise questions come first; the rest test the figures and common confusions.

1. Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as:

2. Residuary powers in India rest with:

3. Which most clearly makes the Indian Constitution federal?

4. Parliament can make a law to implement an international treaty:

5. If President's rule is imposed in a State:

6. The States Reorganisation Commission was set up in:

7. The Sarkaria Commission examined:

8. Jammu and Kashmir was reorganised into two Union Territories with effect from:

UPSC questions from this chapter

Open any question to attempt it in the Question bank — your attempt is saved to your progress.

Prelims

54 questions · newest first
2026Prelims GSConsider the following statements about the provisions pertaining to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in India : 1. Provisions regarding the administration of the Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are given in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India. 2. Some tribes of India are entitled to exemption from paying Income Tax on certain incomes. 3. The Constitution of India provides for reservation of seats in Panchayats for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Which one of the following conclusions based on the above statements is correct ?Attempt →2025Prelims GSWith reference to the Indian polity, consider the following statements: I. The Governor of a State is not answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers and duties of his/her office. II. No criminal proceedings shall be instituted or continued against the Governor during his/her term of office. III. Members of a State Legislature are not liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said within the House. Which of the statements given above are correct?Attempt →2025Prelims GSConsider the following statements: I. The Constitution of India explicitly mentions that in certain spheres the Governor of a State acts in his/her own discretion. II. The President of India can, of his/her own, reserve a bill passed by a State Legislature for his/her consideration without it being forwarded by the Governor of the State concerned. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?Attempt →2025Prelims GSWith reference to India, consider the following: I. The Inter-State Council II. The National Security Council III. Zonal Councils How many of the above were established as per the provisions of the Constitution of India?Attempt →2025Prelims GSConsider the following statements: With reference to the Constitution of India, if an area in a State is declared as Scheduled Area under the Fifth Schedule I. the State Government loses its executive power in such areas and a local body assumes total administration II. the Union Government can take over the total administration of such areas under certain circumstances on the recommendations of the Governor Which of the statements given above is/are correct?Attempt →2024Prelims GSWhich one of the following statements is correct as per the Constitution of India?Attempt →2024Prelims GSThe North Eastern Council (NEC) was established by the North Eastern Council Act, 1971. Subsequent to the amendment of NEC Act in 2002, the Council comprises which of the following members? 1. Governor of the Constituent State 2. Chief Minister of the Constituent State 3. Three Members to be nominated by the President of India 4. The Home Minister of India Select the correct answer using the code given below:Attempt →2022Prelims GSIf a particular area is brought under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which one of the following statements best reflects the consequence of it ?Attempt →2021Prelims GSWhich one of the following in Indian polity is an essential feature that indicates that it is federal in character?Attempt →2019Prelims GSWhich one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past?Attempt →2018Prelims GSConsider the following statements : 1. No criminal proceedings shall be instituted against the Governor of a State in any court during his term of office. 2. The emoluments and allowances of the Governor of a State shall not be diminished during his term of office. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?Attempt →2018Prelims GSIf the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, thenAttempt →2017Prelims GSWhich one of the following is not a feature of Indian federalism ?Attempt →2017Prelims GSWhich of the following are not necessarily the consequences of the proclamation of the President’s rule in a State ? 1. Dissolution of the State Legislative Assembly 2. Removal of the Council of Ministers in the State 3. Dissolution of the local bodies Select the correct answer using the code given below :Attempt →2015Prelims GSThe provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order toAttempt →2014Prelims GSWhich of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State? 1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule 2. Appointing the Ministers 3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India 4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government Select the correct answer using the code given below.Attempt →2014Prelims GSWhich of the following are associated with ‘Planning’ in India? 1. The Finance Commission 2. The National Development Council 3. The Union Ministry of Rural Development 4. The Union Ministry of Urban Development 5. The Parliament Select the correct answer using the code given below.Attempt →2013Prelims GSConsider the following statements : 1. National Development Council is an organ of the Planning Commission. 2. The Economic and Social Planning is kept in the Concurrent List in the Constitution of India. 3. The Constitution of India prescribes that Panchayats should be assigned the task of preparation of plans for economic development and social justice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?Attempt →2013Prelims GSThe Parliament can make any law for whole or any part of India for implementing international treatiesAttempt →2013Prelims GSWhich of the following bodies does not/do not find mention in the Constitution? 1. National Development Council 2. Planning Commission 3. Zonal Councils Select the correct answer using the codes given below.Attempt →2013Prelims GSWho among the following constitute the National Development Council ? 1. The Prime Minister 2. The Chairman, Finance Commission 3. Ministers of the Union Cabinet 4. Chief Ministers of the States Select the correct answer using the codes given belowAttempt →2011Prelims GSWith reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct ?Attempt →2010Prelims GSWho of the following shall cause every recommendation made by the Finance Commission to be laid before each House of Parliament ?Attempt →2007Prelims GSConsider the following statements in respect of financial emergency under Article 360 of the Constitution of India: 1. A Proclamation of financial emergency issued shall cease to operate at the expiration of two months, unless before the expiration of that period it has been approved by the resolution of both houses of Parliament. 2. If nay proclamation of financial emergency is in operation, it is competent for the president of India to issue directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances of all or any class of persons serving in connection with the affairs of the Union but excluding the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. The Judges of the Supreme Court and the High courts. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?Attempt →2006Prelims GSWhich one of the following subjects is under the Union List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of Indian ?Attempt →2004Prelims GSWith reference to the Constitution of India, which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?Attempt →2004Prelims GSWhich one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India says that the executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the Union ?Attempt →2003Prelims GSWhich one of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution provides that ‘It shall be the duty of the Union to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance’?Attempt →2003Prelims GSConsider the following statements: The function(s) of the Finance Commission is/are 1. to allow the withdrawal of money out of the Consolidated Fund of India. 2. to allocate between the States the shares of proceeds of taxes. 3. to consider applications for grants-in-aid from States. 4. to supervise and report on whether the Union and State governments are levying taxes in accordance with the budgetary provisions. Which of these statements is/are correct?Attempt →2002Prelims GSWhich one of the following authorities recommends the principles governing the grants-in-aid of the revenues to the states out of the Consolidated Fund of India?Attempt →2001Prelims GSIf a new State of the Indian Union is to be created, which one of the following Schedules of the Constitution must be amended ?Attempt →2001Prelims GSMatch List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists : Codes : List I (Amendments to the Constitution) List II (Contents) I. The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 (A) Establishment of State level Rent Tribunals Act, 1991 II. The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1994 (B) No reservations for Scheduled Castes in Panchayats in Arunachal Pradesh III. The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000 (C) Constitution of Panchayats in Villages or at other local levels IV. The Constitution (Eighty-third Amendment) Act, 2000 (D) Accepting the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commission - (E) According the status of National Capital Territory to DelhiAttempt →2000Prelims GSThe Parliament can make any law for the whole or any part of India for implementing International treatiesAttempt →2000Prelims GSThe primary function of the Finance Commission in India is toAttempt →1995Prelims GSAgricultural income-tax is assigned to the State Governments byAttempt →1995Prelims GSArticle 156 of the Constitution of India provides that a Governor shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. Which of the following can be deduced from this ? I. No Governor can be removed from office till completion of his term. II. No Governor can continue in office beyond a period of five years. Select the correct answer from the codes given below : Codes:Attempt →1995Prelims GSWhich of the following is/are extraconstitutional and extralegal device(s) for securing cooperation and coordination between the States in India ? I. The National Development Council II. The Governors’ Conference III. Zonal Councils IV. The InterState Council. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below : Codes:Attempt →1994Prelims GSWhich one of the following determines that the Indian Constitution is Federal?Attempt →1994Prelims GSIn which respect have the Centre-State relations been specifically termed as “municipal relations” ?Attempt →1993Prelims GSWhich one of the following is in the Concurrent List in the Constitution of India?Attempt →1993Prelims GSWhich one of the following statements is correct?Attempt →1992Prelims GSWhich one of the following is not in the State List under the Constitution of India?Attempt →1989Prelims GSAssertion (A): Finance Commission aims to safeguard the fiscal autonomy of the States. Reason (R): Finance Commission is constituted every fifth year.Attempt →1987Prelims GSIndia is a federal state because ofAttempt →1987Prelims GSGovernor of which State has been entrusted with the special powers for the administration of tribal areas ?Attempt →1986Prelims GSSarkaria Commission was set up toAttempt →1985Prelims GSThe Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution containsAttempt →1984Prelims GSSarkaria Commission has been set up to studyAttempt →1984Prelims GSOpposition conclave at Srinagar forwarded the following recommendations : (A) Government at the Centre should be shared by all parties (B) Governor should be appointed from a panel forwarded by the State Government concerned (C) Setting up of InterState Council to finalise disputes between the States (D) Giving more powers to the States (E) Articles 356 and 357 should be suitably amended (F) Resignation of Central Government Out of these onlyAttempt →1984Prelims GSCentre-State financial relations are looked after by theAttempt →1983Prelims GSThe reorganisation of Indian States on a linguistic basis took place inAttempt →1982Prelims GSFinance Commission is appointed forAttempt →1980Prelims GSFinance Commission is appointed after everyAttempt →1979Prelims GSThe Constitution 44th Amendment (renumbered as 43rd Amendment)Attempt →

Mains

21 questions
2026GS2Discuss the position of the Governor in the federal polity of India. What is the nature of his power while giving assent to a bill passed by the State Legislature ? Is he bound by the aid and advice of his Council of Ministers in all his functions ? (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2026GS2How far has the Indian federal framework been successful in accommodating regional and cultural diversities ? Highlight the role of asymmetric federalism and suggest measures to make dispute resolution mechanisms more effective. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2025GS2Examine the evolving pattern of Centre-State financial relations in the context of planned development in India. How far have the recent reforms impacted the fiscal federalism in India? (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2025GS2Discuss the nature of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly after the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019. Briefly describe the powers and functions of the Assembly of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. (Answer in 150 words)Write answer →2024GS2What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State Relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States for strengthening federalism. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2023GS2Explain the significance of the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act. To what extent does it reflect the accommodative spirit of federalism? (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2023GS2Account for the legal and political factors responsible for the reduced frequency of using Article 356 by the Union Governments since mid 1990s. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2022GS2"While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy." Comment. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2021GS2The jurisdiction of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) regarding lodging an FIR and conducting probe within a particular State is being questioned by various States. However, the power of the States to withhold consent to the CBI is not absolute. Explain with special reference to the federal character of India. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2021GS2How have the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission of India enabled the States to improve their fiscal position? (Answer in 150 words)Write answer →2020GS3Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions? (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2019GS2From the resolution of contentious issues regarding distribution of legislative powers by the courts, 'Principle of Federal Supremacy' and 'Harmonious Construction' have emerged. Explain. (Answer in 150 words)Write answer →2018GS2How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you know about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2018GS2Whether the Supreme Court Judgment (July 2018) can settle the political tussle between the Lt. Governor and elected government of Delhi? Examine. (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2018GS2Under what circumstances can the Financial Emergency be proclaimed by the President of India? What consequences follow when such a declaration remain in force? (Answer in 150 words)Write answer →2018GS1Discuss whether formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of India? (Answer in 250 words)Write answer →2016GS2Did the Government of India Act, 1935 lay down a federal constitution? Discuss. (Answer in 200 words)Write answer →2016GS2To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (Answer in 200 words)Write answer →2016GS2Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and anomalies, if any, that have led to recent reported conflicts between the elected representatives and institution of Lieutenant Governor in the administration of Delhi. Do you think that this will give rise to a new trend in the functioning of the Indian Federal Politics? (Answer in 200 words)Write answer →2015GS2The concept of cooperative federalism has been increasingly emphasized in recent years. Highlight the drawbacks in the existing structure and the extent to which cooperative federalism would answer the shortcomings. (Answer in 200 words)Write answer →2014GS2Though the federal principle is dominant in our Constitution and that priniciple is one of its basic features, but it is equally true that federalism under the Indian Constitution leans in favour of a strong Centre, a feature that militates against the concept of strong federalism. Discuss. (Answer in 200 words)Write answer →

54 Prelims and 21 Mains UPSC questions are linked to this chapter. More from Indian Constitution at Work.