UPSC Prelims 2026Question 8Ancient History

Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns:
I. There is wide occurrence of spindle-whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels.
II. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered.
III. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.
Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements ?
1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home.
2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed.
3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system.
Select the answer using the code given below:

Options

(a)1 and 2 only
(b)2 and 3 only
(c)1 and 3 only
(d)1, 2 and 3

Correct answer: a

Decision rule

Household-level facilities — private wells, courtyards, large rooms — evidence private control and social difference; reading them as communal or common property is the trap.

Explanation

Correct Answer

(a) 1 and 2 only

Explanation of the Correct Answer

The correct inferences are 1 and 2.

Statement I says that spindle-whorls are widely found in houses, while spinning wheels are absent.
- This suggests that spinning was carried out manually using spindle-whorls.
- Since these objects are found in houses, it indicates that spinning was likely a domestic activity.
- The absence of spinning wheels suggests that the process was relatively slow and labour-intensive.
Statement II says that weights and measurement scales with graduations have been discovered.
- This suggests that the Harappans had knowledge of standardized measurement, precision, calculation, trade, and planning.
- Such evidence reflects a considerable level of scientific and technical knowledge.
Statement III refers to well-built houses with baked bricks, courtyards, wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.
- This indicates urban planning, private domestic space, and social differentiation, not a common property system.
- Houses with private wells and bathing areas suggest household-level ownership or control, not collective ownership.

Therefore, only inferences 1 and 2 are correct.

Why Other Options Are Incorrect

Option	Verdict	Explanation
(a) 1 and 2 only	Correct	Spindle-whorls in houses suggest domestic and labour-intensive spinning, while graduated weights and scales indicate scientific and technical knowledge.
(b) 2 and 3 only	Incorrect	Inference 2 is correct, but inference 3 is incorrect because large private houses with wells and courtyards do not suggest a common property system.
(c) 1 and 3 only	Incorrect	Inference 1 is correct, but inference 3 is incorrect.
(d) 1, 2 and 3	Incorrect	Inference 3 is not valid because Statement III suggests private household organization and possibly social inequality, not common property.

Relevant Supplementary Information

Harappan Findings and Their Inferences

Archaeological Finding	What It Indicates	Broader Inference
Spindle-whorls found in houses	Cotton/wool spinning at domestic level	Textile production was partly household-based
Absence of spinning wheels	Manual spinning through spindle-whorls	Spinning was slower and labour-intensive
Standardized weights	Use of uniform measures	Regulated trade and exchange
Graduated measuring scales	Precision in length measurement	Knowledge of measurement and technical planning
Baked bricks	Durable construction material	Advanced urban building technology
Courtyard houses	Organized domestic architecture	Privacy and household-centred living
Private wells	Water access within houses	Urban comfort and household-level resources
Bathing platforms	Attention to cleanliness and water use	Hygiene and ritual or practical bathing
Large rooms	Spacious domestic units	Possible social differentiation

Important Harappan Urban Features

Feature	Examples / Evidence	Significance
Grid-pattern streets	Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan	Planned urban layout
Drainage system	Covered drains, soak-pits, street drains	Advanced civic management
Baked brick houses	Mohenjo-daro, Harappa	Durable and standardized construction
Great Bath	Mohenjo-daro	Public water structure, possibly ritual use
Granaries / storage structures	Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal	Storage and redistribution possibilities
Dockyard-like structure	Lothal	Maritime trade and craft activity
Weights and measures	Chert weights, graduated scales	Trade standardization and precision
Craft workshops	Chanhudaro, Lothal	Bead-making, shell work, metallurgy

What Harappan Evidence Does and Does Not Prove

Evidence	Reasonable Inference	What Should Not Be Assumed
Large houses with private wells	Social differentiation and household-level resources	Common property system
Uniform weights	Standardized trade and measurement	Modern scientific system in the full sense
Absence of palaces	Less visible royal authority than Egypt/Mesopotamia	Completely equal society
Absence of deciphered texts	Limits certainty about administration and religion	Detailed political structure
Widespread craft objects	Specialized production and trade	Exact caste or class structure
Drainage and bathing facilities	Concern for hygiene and planning	Modern sanitation system

Key Takeaways from the Tables

Spindle-whorls indicate textile-related domestic activity.
Weights and graduated scales show standardization, precision, and technical knowledge.
Private wells and courtyards suggest household-level facilities, not common ownership.
Harappan towns show advanced urban planning, drainage, craft production, and trade organization.
Archaeological evidence must be interpreted carefully; it supports some inferences but does not automatically prove social systems like common property.

Point	Explanation
Spindle-whorls indicate spinning	Their presence in houses suggests domestic textile activity.
Weights and scales indicate precision	Harappans had standardized systems useful for trade and planning.
Private wells and courtyards indicate household-level resources	They do not suggest a common property system.
Harappan towns were highly planned	Drainage, streets, wells, bricks, and zoning show urban sophistication.
Interpretation must be cautious	Archaeological evidence supports inferences but does not always prove exact institutions.
Harappan economy was diverse	Agriculture, crafts, trade, metallurgy, and textile production were all important.

Context and Current Relevance

Harappan archaeology is important because much of our knowledge comes from material remains, as the script remains undeciphered.
The evidence shows a highly organized urban civilization with strong craft, trade, and civic traditions.
The question tests the ability to distinguish between valid archaeological inference and over-interpretation.

Table: Harappan Archaeological Findings and Their Inferences

Archaeological Finding	Where / Context	Reasonable Inference	Caution
Spindle-whorls	Found widely in houses	Spinning was a domestic and labour-intensive activity	Does not prove large-scale factory production by itself
Absence of spinning wheels	Harappan textile evidence	Spinning was done manually using spindle-whorls	Technological absence should not be overstretched
Cotton evidence	Harappan sites; cotton textiles known from the civilization	Harappans knew cotton cultivation and textile production	Exact scale of textile industry is difficult to determine
Standardized weights	Many Harappan sites	Regulated trade, exchange, and administrative control	Does not prove modern scientific knowledge in the full sense
Graduated measuring scales	Lothal and other contexts	Knowledge of precision measurement	Shows technical ability, not necessarily written scientific theory
Baked bricks	Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan etc.	Standardized construction and urban planning	Does not automatically prove state ownership
Private wells	Many houses at Mohenjo-daro	Household-level access to water	Indicates private/domestic facilities, not common property
Bathing platforms	Houses and public spaces	Concern for cleanliness, bathing, and water management	Ritual meaning is possible but not always certain
Courtyard houses	Residential areas	Planned domestic life and privacy	Large houses may indicate social differentiation
Large houses	Urban residential zones	Wealth differences or elite households	Does not prove a common property system

Table: Harappan Urban Features and Their Significance

Feature	Description	Historical Significance
Grid-pattern layout	Streets often cut each other at right angles	Indicates planned urban settlement
Citadel and lower town	Raised fortified area and residential-commercial area	Suggests functional zoning
Drainage system	Covered drains, soak-pits, house drains connected to street drains	Shows advanced civic management
Baked brick architecture	Standardized bricks used in houses, drains, wells, platforms	Indicates technical standardization
Wells	Public and private wells found in large numbers	Shows organized water supply
Bathing platforms	Built within houses and public structures	Indicates hygiene and controlled water use
Great Bath	Mohenjo-daro	Possibly ritual or ceremonial bathing structure
Granary-like structures	Harappa and Mohenjo-daro	May indicate storage, surplus management, or redistribution
Dockyard-like structure	Lothal	Suggests maritime trade or water-management function
Craft areas	Chanhudaro, Lothal, Dholavira etc.	Evidence of specialized production

Table: Harappan Craft and Industrial Evidence

Craft / Industry	Evidence	Inference
Textile production	Spindle-whorls, cotton traces	Domestic and possibly commercial textile activity
Bead-making	Beads, drills, furnaces, workshops	Specialized craft production and trade
Shell working	Shell objects, bangles, workshops	Coastal trade and ornament production
Metallurgy	Copper, bronze tools, ornaments	Knowledge of metalworking
Pottery	Wheel-made pottery, painted motifs	Standardized production and aesthetic culture
Seal-making	Steatite seals with animal motifs and script	Trade identity, administration, or ownership marking
Stoneware bangles	Found at major sites	Skilled craft specialization
Faience objects	Beads, ornaments, small objects	Technological sophistication

Table: Harappan Trade and Economic Evidence

Evidence	What It Suggests	Examples / Notes
Weights and measures	Standardized trade and exchange	Cubical chert weights common
Seals and sealings	Ownership, trade control, or administrative marking	Unicorn motif common
Dockyard-like structure	Maritime trade possibilities	Lothal
Foreign objects	Long-distance exchange	Links with Mesopotamia, Oman, Afghanistan
Carnelian beads	Luxury craft and export	Found in Harappan and West Asian contexts
Shell objects	Coastal-resource exchange	Gujarat and Makran coast links
Copper and tin use	Resource procurement networks	Copper from Rajasthan/Baluchistan/Oman possibilities
Mesopotamian references to Meluhha	Possible reference to Harappan region	Indicates overseas trade links

Table: What Harappan Evidence Can and Cannot Prove

Evidence	Valid Inference	Invalid / Risky Inference
Large houses with wells	Social differentiation and private domestic facilities	Common property system
Uniform bricks	Standardized construction norms	Highly centralized empire with certainty
Weights and measures	Trade regulation and precision	Modern science in the contemporary sense
Absence of palaces	Less visible royal authority than Egypt or Mesopotamia	Complete social equality
Absence of temples	Religion not expressed through large temple structures	Absence of religion
Seals with script	Administrative or symbolic communication	Exact political system, since script is undeciphered
Granary-like structures	Storage or surplus management	Definite state-controlled taxation system
Great Bath	Public/ritual water use	Exact religious ritual details
Craft workshops	Specialized production	Modern factory system

Table: Major Harappan Sites and Their Special Features

Site	Present Location	Important Findings / Features
Harappa	Punjab, Pakistan	Granary-like structures, cemetery, seals, planned town
Mohenjo-daro	Sindh, Pakistan	Great Bath, drainage, large buildings, numerous wells
Dholavira	Gujarat, India	Water reservoirs, inscriptions, three-part city planning
Lothal	Gujarat, India	Dockyard-like structure, bead-making, fire altars, measuring scale
Kalibangan	Rajasthan, India	Ploughed field, fire altars, fortified settlement
Rakhigarhi	Haryana, India	One of the largest Harappan sites, burials, urban remains
Banawali	Haryana, India	Fortified settlement, pre-Harappan and Harappan levels
Chanhudaro	Sindh, Pakistan	Bead-making, craft production, no major citadel
Surkotada	Gujarat, India	Fortified settlement; debated horse remains
Ropar	Punjab, India	Harappan and later cultural levels

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