Elections

This is Chapter 7 of the new integrated Grade 9 book: 22 pages (161–182) built round four ‘Big Questions’ — why elections are essential; how electoral systems and rules shape representation and fairness; what institutions and laws do to keep elections free and fair; and what challenges elections face. It has 13 figures (a fill-in diagram, a photo collage, the single transferable vote box, a photograph of roll checking, the voters' pledge, a chart of ECI apps, an EVM with Braille, photographs of home voting, two charts on political parties, an outline map for an activity, a chart of recognition criteria and an illustration of the ‘road’ to free elections), a three-country table of electoral systems, a box of corrupt practices, several Don't Miss Out, Let's Recall, Let's Explore, Let's Map, Let's Analyse and Think About It boxes, a Before we move on summary and 14 questions and activities. We use nine concept sections. Every number is recomputed; our additions are marked †.

• Earlier in this book: iest106 (Democracy — popular sovereignty, universal adult franchise, the multi-party system and India's scale; read it first); iest101–105 (sources, earth and early societies — iest105 has the sabhā, samiti and gaṇas). Next: iest108 (economics).
• Matching live chapters (for depth): Class 10 jess404 (Political Parties — functions, national and State parties, reforms) and jess405 (Outcomes of Democracy); Class 11 keps203 (Election and Representation — FPTP vs PR, reserved seats, the Election Commission, reforms), keps204 (Executive — electing the President), keps205 (Legislature — anti-defection), keps208 (Local Governments — State Election Commissions); Class 12 leps202 (one-party dominance), leps206 (the Emergency and 1977) and leps208 (coalitions).
• UPSC, honestly: elections, the Election Commission, the RPAs, party recognition, anti-defection and electoral reform are tested every few years in Prelims and regularly in GS2 — at the depth of the Class 11 polity book and standard references. This chapter is a clear first frame. We link 26 questions whose core it teaches: FPTP and STV (1991, 1994, 1995, 2017), the Election Commission (1980, 1994, 2004, 2006, 2017), parties and recognition (1988, 1991), defection (1992, 2014), corrupt practices (1990), delimitation (2024), the right to vote (1984, 2011, 2017), and Mains on simultaneous elections, EVMs, the Model Code, corrupt practices, anti-defection, roll revision and electoral reform.

• Direct: Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha, local bodies (every five years). Indirect: President, Vice-President, Rajya Sabha (and Vidhan Parishads).
• Systems: FPTP (most votes wins, even under 50%) for Lok Sabha and Assemblies; PR by single transferable vote for Rajya Sabha, Vidhan Parishads, President and VP; quota = [valid votes ÷ (seats + 1)] + 1.
• Laws: RPA 1950 (seats, rolls); RPA 1951 (conduct, corrupt practices, disputes); Presidential and VP Elections Act 1952. Delimitation: four Commissions — 1952, 1963, 1973, 2002.
• ECI: set up 25 Jan 1950; Arts 324–329; CEO → DEO → RO/ERO; rolls (SIR), schedules, parties and symbols; National Voters' Day 25 Jan; home voting (85+, PwD 40%) nationwide in 2024.
• Parties: national party = any one of 6% votes in 4 States + 4 LS seats / 2% LS seats from 3 States / State party in 4 States. Anti-defection: 52nd Amendment, 1985 — Speaker/Chairman decides.
• Challenges: misinformation, fake news, intimidation (and money power †) — met through the RPAs, Model Code, EVMs, VVPAT, awareness and vigilant citizens.

The book: elections are one of the most important ways of exercising democratic rights; regular and periodic elections are the core of democracy. Members of the Lok Sabha, the Vidhan Sabhas and local bodies (panchayats, municipal corporations) are elected directly every five years; the President, the Vice-President and members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly. Elected representatives are accountable to the people, and the vote is the principal means of holding them to account. An election is how we exercise the right to vote and fulfil our responsibility as citizens. Fig. 7.1 places four reasons round the word ‘Elections’ — equality, representation, accountability, legitimacy — and leaves two boxes for you to fill. A Don't Miss Out explains psephology. ‘Inside India's Election Machinery’ then says free, fair and transparent elections in so vast a country need laws, a coordinated system at national, State and local levels and many stakeholders — the ECI, parties, civil society, media and voters — whose powers come from the Constitution and parliamentary laws.

The book: the first step is deciding how votes become seats; the way seats are allotted distinguishes one system from another. The framers discussed the two most common systems and chose the plurality or ‘First-Past-The-Post’ (FPTP) system. The Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas are elected by FPTP; the Rajya Sabha, the President and the Vice-President by proportional representation. Its table compares three imaginary countries: Haritbhumi (FPTP, 25 seats — each voter picks one candidate; the one with the most votes wins even below 50%; Party A with 40% forms the government), Ratnadweep (majority system, 25 seats — a winner needs over 50%, otherwise the top two meet again; Party Y wins round 2 with 55%) and Swarnalok (PR, 100 seats on a national list — voters choose a party; seats M 40, N 35, O 15, P 10 — power is shared proportionately). A Let's Explore asks groups to study six countries' systems on different continents.

The book: six States — Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh — have a bicameral legislature: the Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council, upper house) and the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly, lower house). The Vidhan Parishad is elected by members of the Vidhan Sabha and of local bodies, and by graduates and teachers of the State, and the Governor nominates some members from fields such as art, science, social service, literature and co-operatives. Elections to the Vidhan Parishad use PR by single transferable vote. Fig. 7.3 gives the count in four steps: voters mark preferences; first preferences are counted and those reaching the quota are elected; the lowest candidate is eliminated and their votes transferred to second preferences; this continues until all seats are filled. Quota = [total valid votes ÷ (seats to be filled + 1)] + 1.

The book: two major laws govern elections — the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which deals mainly with allocation of seats and delimitation of constituencies, preparation and revision of electoral rolls, and the right of every citizen aged 18 and above to vote without discrimination; and the Representation of the People Act, 1951, which covers all other aspects of conducting elections and post-election disputes — nomination of candidates, campaigns, voting procedure and resolution of disputes. There is also the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952. The 1951 Act lists electoral offences and corrupt practices; the book's examples are any gift, offer or promise to make a person contest, withdraw, vote or not vote; appeals to vote or not vote on grounds of religion, caste, race, community or language; and getting help for a candidate from government personnel — gazetted officers, judges and magistrates, armed forces, police and excise officers. Delimitation fixes the number of seats and the boundaries of Lok Sabha and Assembly constituencies so that the ratio of seats to population is as equal as possible; without it one MP might represent five lakh people and another twenty-five lakh (one vote worth five times another — our check). A Don't Miss Out says Article 82 mandates a Delimitation Commission, and India has had four — 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002 — and asks why there was so long a gap between 1973 and 2002.

The book: the Constitution vests in the Election Commission of India (ECI) the superintendence, direction and control of the entire process of conducting elections. Its Let's Recall: the ECI is an autonomous, permanent constitutional body set up on 25 January 1950; it conducts elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, Vidhan Sabhas, Vidhan Parishads, and the offices of President and Vice-President; Articles 324 to 329 provide for it and its powers. In each State, the Chief Electoral Officer, appointed by the ECI from among civil servants in consultation with the State government, supervises election work; District Magistrates, Sub-Divisional Magistrates, Tahsildars and other officers serve as District Election Officers, Returning Officers and Electoral Registration Officers. Its functions: (1) the electoral roll — enumerators visit every household; rolls are prepared polling station-wise; only those on the roll vote; the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) updates, verifies and corrects the rolls so no eligible citizen is left out and no ineligible person is included, adds young voters who have just turned 18, and deletes names for death, change of residence, duplicate entry or being permanently untraceable, after time for claims and objections; (2) the schedule — when a House's five-year term ends or it is dissolved early, weighing weather, harvests, examinations and festivals; (3) parties and symbols — only parties registered with the ECI can contest (independents can also contest); it insists on periodic organisational elections inside parties; classifies parties as national, State or registered-unrecognised; allots symbols to national and State parties; and acts as a quasi-judicial body in disputes over recognition and symbols; (4) free and fair elections — fairness, accurate counting and accessibility, without which elections lose democratic value.

The book: the ECI has taken several initiatives to make elections more inclusive — infrastructure accessibility and technology-assisted inclusion for persons with disabilities (PwDs), senior citizens, transgender persons and Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Voting from home for senior citizens above 85 and PwDs with a benchmark disability of 40% was extended across India for the first time in the 2024 General Elections. Fig. 7.6 shows a digital ecosystem: ETPBS for service voters; the Voter Helpline App (registration, transposition, verification, news); cVIGIL (report Model Code violations within minutes; flying squads reach the spot by auto-location); ERONET (form processing, dashboards, role-based access, e-rolls); Sugam (managing vehicles requisitioned for election work); Suvidha (for candidates and parties — nomination forms, permissions for meetings, rallies, vehicles, loudspeakers); and Saksham (for PwDs — registration, finding the polling station). With over 96.8 crore eligible voters, the ECI uses information technology and e-governance for rolls, nominations, campaign regulation, law enforcement, coordination, security, counting, results and disputes. A Don't Miss Out describes the International Election Visitors' Programme (IEVP) and MoUs with 28 election bodies and three international organisations — IFES, International IDEA and the United Nations.

The book: most of the dozens of candidates in a constituency belong to a party, though some are independents; voters learn about candidates, policies, development plans and positions mainly through parties, which help democracy work through governance, accountability, representation and public engagement, and present their agendas at rallies and in the media. Fig. 7.9: parties organise public opinion, campaign on issues, offer meaningful choices and help voters decide. Fig. 7.11: citizens → parties → contest elections (campaigns, manifestos) → the winning party forms the government and formulates and implements policies; the opposition ensures accountability through debates and committees. India has a multi-party system reflecting its diversity of languages, cultures, religions and regions. The ECI registers and recognises parties on set criteria (Fig. 7.12): a national party needs any one of — 6% of valid votes in four or more States plus four Lok Sabha seats; 2% of Lok Sabha seats from at least three States; or recognition as a State party in at least four States; a State party needs any one of five conditions; registered unrecognised parties (RUPPs) have not secured enough votes or have never contested since registration. A Let's Explore says 1967 ended the era of single-party dominance and began the era of alliances; in 1977 parties came together as the Janata Party after the Emergency and formed what the book calls the first coalition government at the national level; since the late 1990s the NDA (led by the BJP) and the UPA (led by the INC, which the book says dissolved in 2023 and was reconstituted as the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance) have been the major alliances.

The book: anyone may leave one party and join another — but once elected on a party's ticket, leaving it is defection: abandoning the party under whose banner one was elected, by joining another party or acting independently of the party's decisions, especially when voting in the House. Seen from party discipline and political stability, this is called political opportunism; but defection can also be seen as upholding conscience or responding to changing public expectations. Its Don't Miss Out: the Anti-Defection Law was passed in 1985 through the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act to prevent defection and give stability; a member of Parliament or a State Assembly who voluntarily gives up party membership or votes against the party's whip can be disqualified; the Speaker or Chairman decides.

The book: conducting elections for over 96.8 crore voters (2024), with thousands of polling stations and hundreds of parties across diverse regions, is a challenging task. Against misinformation, fake news and intimidation, the ECI relies on the RPA 1950 and 1951, the Model Code of Conduct, EVMs, the VVPAT, voter-awareness campaigns and other measures; with constant vigilance and active citizens, elections become more representative and democracy more robust. Fig. 7.13 draws this as a road to a polling booth with potholes, and the Let's Analyse asks you to fill in more. Before we move on: voting is a constitutional right and a duty; elections are the soul of democracy, giving every citizen an equal voice; the RPAs, the Delimitation Commission and the ECI keep elections free, fair and transparent; parties present diverse programmes so voters can choose; and despite challenges the ECI tries to keep elections at every level impartial. The exercises add money power (Q12) and ‘One Nation, One Election’ (Q14).

One fill-in figure, four Let's Explore boxes, two Let's Map tasks, a Think About It, a Let's Analyse and a Don't Miss Out question. Outlines below.

Fourteen questions and activities after the Before we move on summary (section 9). Try first, then open.

Numbers

One-liners

• Direct: Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha, local bodies; indirect: President, Vice-President, Rajya Sabha.
• FPTP: most votes wins — no 50% needed.
• India's PR is the single transferable vote, used for indirect elections.
• RPA 1950 = seats and rolls; RPA 1951 = conduct, corrupt practices, disputes.
• Delimitation keeps one person, one vote, one value.
• The ECI superintends, directs and controls elections to Parliament, State legislatures, President and VP.
• Only those on the roll vote; the SIR updates the roll.
• Parties are registered and recognised by the ECI; symbols under the 1968 Order.
• Anti-defection: 52nd Amendment, 1985; the presiding officer decides, courts can review.
• Free and fair elections need laws, an umpire, checkable machines and vigilant citizens.

Traps to avoid

• Article 82 provides for readjustment after each census; Commissions come from Acts of Parliament.
• Registration with the ECI is not needed to contest; unregistered parties' candidates are independents.
• The ECI urges, but cannot enforce, inner-party elections.
• Voting is not compulsory and not a Fundamental Duty; the right to vote is statutory, resting on Art. 326.
• FPTP needs only the most votes, not 50%.
• Local-body polls: State Election Commissions, not the ECI.
• Nominated MPs vote for the Vice-President, not the President.
• Prisoners cannot vote; preventive detainees vote by postal ballot.
• 1977 Janata Party: a merger of parties — first non-Congress government at the Centre.
• Four Delimitation Commissions; seat numbers frozen on the 1971 census.
• UPSC 1990: glorifying sati was a corrupt practice (Sec. 123(3B)) — answer (d).
• Home voting is for those above 85, not 80.

Prelims — what UPSC asks

• From this chapter: who handles elections (1980); ECI functions and limits (1994, 2004, 2017); ECI as a constitutional body (2006); FPTP and STV (1991, 1994 ×2, 1995, 2017); party recognition (1988, 1991); defection (1992, 2014); corrupt practices (1990 — mind the key); delimitation (2024); voting as right and duty (1984, 2011, 2017 — a debated key).
• Learn article → subject (324–329, 82, 171, 243K/243ZA, 326), Act → content (RPA 1950 vs 1951), amendment → year (52nd 1985, 61st 1988, 91st 2003) and the recognition thresholds. Where the book is loose (Art. 82, ‘only registered parties’, ‘duty’ to vote), use the precise form.

Mains — where it appears and how to answer

• GS2: simultaneous elections (2017, 2024); EVMs and trust (2018); the Model Code and the ECI (2022); corrupt practices (2025); the right to vote and roll revision (2026); anti-defection and MPs' role (2013).
• Write basis (articles, Acts, years) → institution and process → data with source and year → dated judgments → attributed positions → balanced way forward; never evaluate a current party, leader or government.

Tap an option. NCERT's own exercise questions come first; the rest test the figures and common confusions.

Open any question to attempt it in the Question bank — your attempt is saved to your progress.