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Arts of the Mauryan Period
Start here: why this chapter matters
Chapter 2 ended with the Indus cities around 1900 BCE. After a long gap in surviving monumental art, stone sculpture and architecture reappear on a large scale under the Mauryas in the third century BCE. The chapter covers pillars and capitals, monumental figure sculpture (yakshas and yakshis), rock-cut work (Dhauli, Barabar), and the beginnings of the stupa as a canvas for carved stories.
- Links in this book: Chapter 4 (Post-Mauryan Trends) continues the story — Bharhut, Sanchi’s gateways, the western Indian caves, Gandhara and Mathura. Chapter 6 picks up temple sculpture.
- Links to Themes in Indian History: Theme Two (Kings, Farmers and Towns) covers Ashoka, his dhamma and his inscriptions; Theme Four (Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings) covers Buddhism and Jainism, stupas and their parts, Sanchi, Barabar and the reading of sculpture.
- UPSC: GS1 art and culture is full of Mauryan art — Ashokan pillars (1997), the Dhauli elephant (2015), Barabar (2013), the Lion Capital (1998), stupas (2023) and early stupa art (Mains 2016).
| Word | What it means here |
|---|---|
| Shramana | Renunciant traditions outside the Vedic fold — Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas |
| Capital | The carved top of a pillar |
| Abacus | The slab or drum between the bell and the crowning figures |
| Addorsed | Set back to back |
| Dhammachakrapravartana | ‘Setting in motion the wheel of dhamma’ — the Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath |
| Yaksha / yakshi (yakshini) | Male / female nature spirits and guardians, worshipped in popular religion |
| Chauri | A fly-whisk, a sign of attendance or honour |
| Chaitya arch | A horseshoe-shaped arch copied from wooden and thatched buildings |
| Stupa; anda; harmika; chhatra | Relic mound; its dome; the railed box on top; the umbrella |
| Vihara | A monastery for monks |
| Torana | A gateway to a stupa |
| Jataka | A story of the Buddha’s previous lives |
| Gahapati | A householder, often a wealthy landowner |
At a glance — the six ideas to carry away
- Context: shramana movements (Buddhism, Jainism) from the 6th c. BCE; Mauryan power by the 3rd c. BCE; yaksha and mother-goddess worship alongside, later absorbed.
- Ashokan pillars: monolithic, polished, with edicts; capital = lotus bell + abacus + animal (bull, lion, elephant); differ from assembled Achaemenid pillars.
- Sarnath Lion Capital: commemorates the first sermon; 4 addorsed lions; abacus with 4 wheels (24 spokes) and bull, horse, elephant, lion; the National Emblem.
- Yakshas and yakshis: monumental, standing, polished (Patna, Vidisha, Mathura; Parkham); Didarganj Yakshi with a chauri — date debated.
- Dhauli rock-cut elephant (Odisha) with an edict; Lomus Rishi cave, Barabar: chaitya-arch façade, elephant frieze, for Ajivikas.
- Stupas over relics; Bairat and brick Sanchi (3rd c. BCE); 2nd c. BCE railings, gateways, collective patronage; symbols → narratives (Buddha’s life, Jatakas).
1. The setting: new faiths, a new empire, old cults
The sixth century BCE saw new religious and social movements in the Ganga valley — Buddhism and Jainism, part of the shramana tradition. NCERT says both grew popular because they opposed the varna and jati system. Magadha became the dominant kingdom; by the fourth century BCE the Mauryas had established their power, and by the third century BCE much of India was under their control. Ashoka, the most powerful Mauryan king, patronised the Buddhist shramana tradition.
Religious practice was plural. Yaksha and mother-goddess worship were widespread; yaksha worship was popular before and after the coming of Buddhism and was assimilated into Buddhism and Jainism. Even so, Buddhism became the most popular social and religious movement.
- Standard dates: Chandragupta Maurya founded the dynasty c. 322/321 BCE; Ashoka ruled c. 268–232 BCE; the last Mauryan, Brihadratha, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga (UPSC 2003), c. 185 BCE.
- Many scholars distinguish Mauryan court art (pillars, capitals, polished caves made under royal patronage) from popular art (yaksha and yakshi figures, terracotta made for other patrons). Useful framing for Mains.
2. Ashokan pillars and the Persian question
Apart from stupas and viharas, this period produced stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure sculpture. Pillars are an old idea, and they were also set up in the Achaemenid (Persian) empire. But NCERT stresses a difference: Mauryan pillars are carved from a single piece of stone, showing the carver’s skill, while Achaemenid pillars were built in pieces by a mason. Ashoka’s pillars, with inscriptions, are found in the north Indian part of the empire. The top carries capital figures — bull, lion, elephant and others — vigorous and standing on a square or circular abacus decorated with stylised lotuses. Pillars with capitals survive at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh and Rampurva (Bihar) and Sankisa and Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh).
- Case for influence (scholars): the Achaemenid empire bordered Mauryan India; Persian columns also had high polish, bell-like elements and animal capitals; Ashoka’s idea of carving royal messages on stone has Achaemenid parallels.
- Case for an Indian creation (NCERT’s emphasis): Mauryan pillars are monolithic and free-standing, without bases or fluting; the motifs — lotus, wheel, Indian animals — are local; the carving reflects Indian craft traditions.
- Safe line: ‘The Mauryan pillar may have drawn on Achaemenid ideas, but it was reworked into a distinct Indian form.’ Avoid ‘copied from Persia’.
- Ashokan pillars are highly polished, monolithic, with tapering shafts — and are not parts of architectural structures; they stand alone (UPSC 1997 asked which statement is incorrect: ‘parts of architectural structures’).
- NCERT calls them ‘rock-cut pillars’; read that as cut from a single block of stone, not cut into a cliff like a cave.
- The shafts are generally of buff Chunar sandstone (near Varanasi), transported over long distances; the glossy finish is called the ‘Mauryan polish’.
- The Rampurva bull capital is displayed at Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi; the Sankisa capital is an elephant; the Lauriya-Nandangarh pillar still stands with its single lion.
3. The Sarnath Lion Capital
Found at Sarnath near Varanasi more than a century ago, the Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculpture and India’s National Emblem. Ashoka set it up to commemorate the Buddha’s first sermon (Dhammachakrapravartana), and it became the standard symbol of that event.
Five parts (NCERT): (i) the shaft, now broken in several places; (ii) a lotus bell base; (iii) a drum on the bell with four animals proceeding clockwise; (iv) four majestic addorsed lions; and (v) a crowning Dharmachakra, a large wheel, now broken and shown in the Sarnath site museum. The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base was adopted as the National Emblem.
The lions. Massive and monumental, with strong facial musculature; the curled-back lines of the lips, projecting at the corners, show close observation of nature; the lions seem to hold their breath. The mane is cut in sharp, conventional lines with curls of real volume. The surface is heavily polished, typical of the period. The stretched muscles of the feet show each lion’s weight.
The abacus. It carries a chakra with 24 spokes in each of the four directions, with a bull, a horse, an elephant and a lion between the wheels. Though attached to the surface, each animal has volume and seems to move around the drum — great control of movement in a small space. The chakra became the sign of the Dhammachakra throughout Buddhist art. Below, an inverted lotus supports the abacus, each petal carved with attention to its density. Because it is a pillar image, it was designed to be seen from all sides. A lion capital was also found at Sanchi, now dilapidated, and the lion-capital motif continued later.
- Full view (page 22): the capital alone, golden-buff under strong light: three lions visible (the fourth hidden behind), each with a rounded, open mouth and deep, ridged mane; below them the round abacus with a wheel in the centre and an animal on each side; beneath, the bell of long, vertical ribbed petals flaring at the base.
- Details (page 23): the lions’ heads and chests — note the polish and the crisp, flame-like mane; the abacus — a wheel with fine spokes between striding animals; and the bell — dense vertical petals ending in a curled rim.
- What to notice for exams: four lions, back to back; wheel and animal drum; lotus bell; polish.
- The Lion Capital is at Sarnath (first sermon) — not Rajgir (UPSC 1998 pair ‘Rajgir: Lion capital of Asoka’ was wrong).
- The abacus animals are bull, horse, elephant and lion; the crowning figures are four lions. Don’t confuse them.
- NCERT calls the lions ‘firmly standing’ on page 20 and ‘firmly seated’ on page 23, and lists the abacus animals in two different orders. Use ‘four lions back to back’ and avoid claiming an order.
- The Emblem omits the bell and the crowning wheel.
- The capital was excavated at Sarnath in 1904–05 (F.O. Oertel) and is in the Sarnath Museum.
- India adopted it as the State Emblem on 26 January 1950; in the emblem three lions are visible, and the abacus shows a wheel flanked by a bull and a horse. The motto Satyameva Jayate below it comes from the Mundaka Upanishad (UPSC 1992, 2014).
- The 24-spoked wheel is also the chakra on the national flag.
4. Yakshas and yakshis: monumental popular images
Monumental images of yakshas, yakshis and animals, pillars with capitals, and rock-cut caves of the third century BCE are found across India — evidence of how popular yaksha worship was and how it entered Buddhist and Jaina monuments. Large yaksha and yakshi statues are known from Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. They are mostly standing; a key feature is their polished surface; faces are in full round with pronounced cheeks and detailed features. One of the finest is the yakshi from Didarganj, Patna — tall, well built, sensitive to the human body, and polished.
The Didarganj Yakshini (NCERT’s feature). A life-size, free-standing figure in sandstone with a polished surface, holding a chauri (fly-whisk) in her right hand; the left hand is broken. NCERT notes the sculptor’s sensitivity to a rounded, muscular body: round, fleshy cheeks and a relatively short neck; sharp eyes, nose and lips; carefully shown folds of muscle; a bead necklace in full round hanging to the belly; a garment tightened at the waist so the belly bulges; a lower garment whose folds cling to the legs in raised lines, giving a slightly transparent effect, with a central band falling to the feet; thick bell anklets; heavy breasts; hair tied in a knot at the back; a bare back; and the chauri’s incised lines continuing behind.
- Front (page 24): a tall, full-bodied woman standing straight, a fly-whisk raised at her right shoulder, a long bead necklace, a girdle of beads at the hips, a lower garment in many fine curving folds, a central pleated band, heavy anklets; polished buff stone.
- Back (page 24): a smooth bare back, the hair gathered in an elaborate knot with a hanging tassel, a sash looping across the hips, the garment’s folds sweeping round.
- Details (page 25): a close view of the upper body and face — round cheeks, a jewelled head ornament, the necklace — and small views of the hair-knot, the chauri’s finely incised strands and the bangled right arm.
- What to notice: sculpture in the round (both sides finished), polish, and the balance of volume and fine linear detail.
| Feature | Ashokan capitals (court art) | Yaksha / yakshi figures (popular art) |
|---|---|---|
| Patron | the emperor | local communities and donors (inferred) |
| Subject | animals and Buddhist symbols | human-shaped nature deities |
| Form | symmetrical, stylised, polished | massive, frontal, polished; full round faces |
| Purpose | royal message; commemoration | worship; later guardians in Buddhist and Jaina art |
- The Didarganj figure was found in 1917 on the bank of the Ganga at Didarganj, Patna. NCERT says it is in Patna Museum; it was moved to the new Bihar Museum, Patna, in 2017.
- Yakshis reappear as tree-nymphs and gateway figures at Sanchi and Bharhut (Chapter 4; Theme Four’s shalabhanjika).
5. Rock-cut art: the Dhauli elephant and the Lomus Rishi cave
NCERT notes that terracotta figurines of the period treat the body very differently from stone sculpture. The monumental rock-cut elephant at Dhauli (Odisha) is modelled in the round with linear rhythm, and the site also has an Ashokan rock edict.
Lomus Rishi cave. Cut into the Barabar hills near Gaya (Bihar). Its façade has a semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance, with an elephant frieze carved in high relief on the arch that shows considerable movement. Inside is a rectangular hall with a circular chamber at the back; the entrance is in the side wall of the hall. NCERT says the cave was donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. Many Buddhist caves of later periods were cut in eastern and western India.
- Barabar caves were made for the Ajivikas by Ashoka — not by Chandragupta Maurya (UPSC 2013).
- The Dhauli elephant is third century BCE — earlier than Udayagiri’s Varaha (Gupta), Mahabalipuram (Pallava) and the Lingaraja temple (UPSC 2015: Dhauli is the earliest).
- NCERT spells it Lomus Rishi; it is usually written Lomas Rishi.
- The Ashokan dedications to the Ajivikas are inscribed in neighbouring Barabar caves such as Sudama; Lomas Rishi itself carries no Ashokan inscription and is attributed to the period on style and context. NCERT’s ‘donated by Ashoka’ is the usual textbook statement.
- The interiors of the Barabar caves have the same mirror-like Mauryan polish as the pillars.
6. Stupas, patrons and artisans
With the spread of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas and viharas were built on a large scale, and a few Brahmanical deities also appear in sculpture. NCERT lists stupas built over the Buddha’s relics at Rajagraha, Vaishali, Vethadipa and Pava (Bihar), Kapilavastu, Allakappa and Ramagrama (Nepal), and Kushinagar and Pippalvina (Uttar Pradesh); texts mention others, including Avanti and Gandhara, outside the Ganga valley. Stupa, vihara and chaitya belong to both Buddhist and Jaina monastic complexes, most of them Buddhist. A third-century BCE stupa structure survives at Bairat (Rajasthan); the Great Stupa at Sanchi was built in brick under Ashoka and later cased in stone with many additions.
Patronage. From the second century BCE, many inscriptions name donors and sometimes their profession. Patronage was collective; royal patronage is rare. Patrons ranged from lay devotees to gahapatis and kings, and guilds also gave. Inscriptions naming artisans are very few — Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple Balaka at Kondane (Maharashtra) — but categories such as stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers and carpenters are mentioned. Work was collective; sometimes a single part of a monument was paid for by one patron, and traders recorded their donation with their place of origin.
Structure. In the following century stupas were elaborated: the circumambulatory path was enclosed by railings with sculpture, and gateways were added. The basic form — a cylindrical drum, a round anda, a harmika and a chhatra on top — stayed the same with minor variations. The elaborations gave architects and sculptors ample space for carving.
- For the parts of a stupa, the clockwise walk and the four gateways, see the diagram in Theme Four. UPSC 2023 accepted that a stupa was generally a repository of relics and a votive and commemorative structure, while rejecting ‘Buddhist in origin’ — the mound tradition is older.
- The chaitya (worship hall) and vihara (monastery) distinction is tested often (UPSC 1992, 2013) — covered in Theme Four and Chapter 4.
7. From symbols to stories: the Buddha’s life and the Jatakas
In early Buddhism the Buddha is shown symbolically — through footprints, stupas, the lotus throne, the chakra and so on — for simple worship, as a mark of respect, or to record events of his life. Gradually narrative entered the tradition: events from the Buddha’s life and the Jataka stories were carved on the railings and toranas. Three modes were used: synoptic, continuous and episodic narrative.
The life events most often shown are the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon (dhammachakrapravartana) and mahaparinibbana (release from the cycle of birth). Jatakas frequently shown include the Chhaddanta, Vidurapandita, Ruru, Sibi, Vessantara and Shama Jatakas.
| Jataka (Beyond NCERT summaries) | Story in one line |
|---|---|
| Chhaddanta | the Bodhisattva as a six-tusked elephant who gives up his tusks |
| Vidurapandita | a wise minister whose teaching wins over a yaksha |
| Ruru | a golden deer who saves a drowning man who later betrays him |
| Sibi | a king who offers his own flesh to save a dove |
| Vessantara | a generous prince who gives away everything |
| Shama (Sama) | a devoted son of blind parents, shot by a king while fetching water |
NCERT exercise — answer outlines
Four discussion questions. Try each first.
Q1. Do you think that the art of making sculptures in India began during the Mauryan period?
Q2. What was the significance of the stupa and how did stupa architecture develop?
Q3. Which were the four events in the life of the Buddha depicted in Buddhist art, and what did they symbolise?
Q4. What are the Jatakas? How do they relate to Buddhism?
What to remember
Numbers
One-liners
- Mauryan pillar = monolithic, polished, free-standing, with edicts; Achaemenid = assembled in pieces.
- Capital = lotus bell + abacus + animal (bull, lion, elephant).
- Sarnath: 4 lions back to back; abacus with 4 wheels (24 spokes) + bull, horse, elephant, lion; first sermon.
- National Emblem = lions + abacus, without bell and crowning wheel.
- Yakshas/yakshis: monumental, standing, polished; Patna, Vidisha, Mathura; Parkham; Didarganj.
- Didarganj Yakshi: sandstone, chauri in right hand, polished, in the round.
- Dhauli: rock-cut elephant + Ashokan edict, Odisha.
- Lomus (Lomas) Rishi, Barabar: chaitya arch, elephant frieze, hall + circular cell, for Ajivikas.
- Sanchi: brick under Ashoka, later stone; Bairat: 3rd-century stupa.
- Patronage collective: lay devotees, gahapatis, guilds, kings; symbols → narratives.
Traps to avoid
- Ashokan pillars are not parts of buildings — they stand alone (UPSC 1997).
- The Lion Capital is at Sarnath, not Rajgir (UPSC 1998).
- Barabar caves: Ashoka for the Ajivikas, not Chandragupta (UPSC 2013).
- Dhauli elephant (3rd c. BCE) predates Udayagiri, Mahabalipuram and Lingaraja (UPSC 2015).
- Crowning figures = 4 lions; abacus animals = bull, horse, elephant, lion.
- The Emblem omits the lotus bell and the crowning wheel.
- Didarganj Yakshi: ‘Mauryan’ is the textbook date; many scholars date it later.
- ‘Persian influence’ is debated — say ‘reworked’, not ‘copied’.
- NCERT’s Q3 asks for four events though the text lists five.
- NCERT’s ‘rock-cut pillars’ means monolithic, not cut into a cliff.
How to strategise
Prelims — what UPSC asks
- Pillars: features (1997) — monolithic, polished, tapering, free-standing; capitals and sites (Sarnath, Rampurva, Sankisa, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Basarah-Bakhira); Lion Capital at Sarnath, not Rajgir (1998); Emblem details and Satyameva Jayate (1992, 2014 — Beyond NCERT).
- Rock-cut: Barabar for Ajivikas by Ashoka (2013); Dhauli elephant earliest among later monuments (2015). Expect Lomas Rishi façade and Didarganj Yakshi questions.
- Stupas: relic repository, votive and commemorative, older mound tradition (2023); chaitya vs vihara (1992, 2013, in Theme Four).
Mains — where it appears and how to answer
- GS1 2016: ‘Early Buddhist stupa art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals.’ Use sections 4, 6 and 7: yakshas and yakshis assimilated as guardians; symbols (footprints, throne, wheel, stupa); narrative modes; Jatakas teaching generosity and sacrifice; collective donors.
- Likely: ‘Mauryan art: court and popular traditions’; ‘Was Mauryan art influenced by Persia?’ — use the comparison diagram and the debate box; end with a balanced view.
- Frame: patron → material and technique (Chunar sandstone, polish, monolith) → form and style → meaning (dhamma, popular cults) → legacy (Emblem; later stupas and caves).
Self-check
Tap an option. NCERT's own exercise questions come first; the rest test the figures and common confusions.
1. Which statement about Ashokan pillars is INCORRECT?
2. The abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital carries:
3. Which parts of the Sarnath capital are NOT in India’s National Emblem?
4. The Lomus (Lomas) Rishi cave at Barabar was made for:
5. According to NCERT, how do Mauryan pillars differ from Achaemenid pillars?
6. The Didarganj Yakshi holds in her right hand:
7. Which narrative mode shows several moments of a story together in one frame?
UPSC questions from this chapter
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